Category: People

Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins

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Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins was a member of the Paiute tribe and a Native American writer, activist, lecturer, teacher, and school organizer in the Humboldt County area of Nevada.

Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins (1844 – October 17, 1891)
Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins (1844 – October 17, 1891)

Early Life and Cultural Roots

Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins, born around 1844 near Humboldt Sink, Nevada, was a Northern Paiute woman whose Paiute name, Thocmetony, meaning “Shell Flower,” reflected her connection to her people’s traditions. The daughter of Chief Winnemucca (Poito), a Shoshone who had joined the Paiute through marriage, and Tuboitonie, she was the granddaughter of Chief Truckee, a prominent leader who advocated peaceful coexistence with Anglo-American settlers. Raised in the Kuyuidika-a band near Pyramid Lake, Sarah grew up in a world of dramatic change as white settlers encroached on Paiute lands following the 1848 California Gold Rush. Her early years were marked by the Paiute’s nomadic lifestyle, gathering plants and fishing, but also by fear of the “white-eyed” settlers, whom she initially believed might harm her people.

At age six, Sarah accompanied her grandfather Truckee to California, where she encountered unfamiliar Euro-American customs—beds, chairs, and bright dishes— sparking both curiosity and apprehension. By 1857, at Truckee’s insistence, she and her sister Elma lived with Major William Ormsby’s family in Carson City, learning English and adopting the name Sarah. In 1860, at 16, she briefly attended a Catholic convent school in San Jose, California, but was forced to leave after three weeks due to objections from white parents. Despite this, Sarah became fluent in English, Spanish, and several Native languages, skills that would define her role as a mediator between cultures.

Advocacy and Role in Conflict

Sarah’s life was shaped by the escalating tensions between the Paiute and settlers. The 1860 Paiute War, sparked by settler encroachment, claimed lives, including family members, and deepened her resolve to act as a peacemaker. In 1871, at age 27, she began working as an interpreter for the Bureau of Indian Affairs at Fort McDermitt, Nevada, leveraging her linguistic abilities to bridge communication gaps. Her 1870 letter to the superintendent of Indian Affairs, published in Harper’s magazine, marked her emergence as a public advocate, exposing the Paiute’s plight and gaining both attention and criticism.

During the 1878 Bannock War, Sarah’s role was both heroic and controversial. Learning that her father and other Paiutes were held hostage by Bannock warriors, she undertook a grueling 233-mile horseback ride to Pyramid Lake to warn her family and dissuade them from joining the conflict. She then volunteered as an interpreter and scout for the U.S. Army, freeing her father and others. However, her collaboration with the military led some Paiutes to view her as a traitor, a perception compounded by her advocacy for assimilation to ensure her people’s survival. After the war, the Paiute were forcibly relocated to the Yakama Reservation in Washington Territory, a harsh 350-mile winter march that devastated the community. Sarah, devastated by broken promises she had made to her people, worked as an interpreter at Yakama and began lobbying for their return to Nevada.

Literary and Public Advocacy

In 1880, Sarah traveled to Washington, D.C., meeting President Rutherford B. Hayes and Interior Secretary Carl Schurz to demand the Paiutes’ release from Yakama and their return to the Malheur Reservation. Despite promises, these commitments were never fulfilled, fueling her determination to reach broader audiences. From 1883 to 1884, she delivered over 300 lectures across the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic, often billed as the “Paiute Princess,” a trope she strategically embraced to captivate white audiences. Her speeches, blending eloquence, humor, and sharp critiques of U.S. policies, challenged stereotypes and exposed the hypocrisy of Indian agents and the reservation system. She met luminaries like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Oliver Wendell Holmes, earning praise for her “eloquent, pathetic, tragical” oratory.

In 1883, with support from Elizabeth Palmer Peabody and Mary Peabody Mann, Sarah published Life Among the Piutes: Their Wrongs and Claims, the first autobiography by a Native American woman and the first Native woman to secure a copyright. The book, a blend of memoir and ethnohistory, chronicled the Paiute’s first 40 years of contact with settlers, detailing injustices like land theft, starvation, and broken treaties. Written in English—a language not her own—and at a time when women, especially Native women, lacked political voice, it was a groundbreaking achievement. The book remains a vital historical source, praised for its vivid imagery and unflinching critique of Anglo-American expansion.

Educational Efforts and Personal Life

In 1884, using royalties from her book and donations, Sarah founded the Peabody Institute near Lovelock, Nevada, a school for Native children that emphasized Paiute language and culture alongside English education. Innovative for its time, the school aimed to empower Native youth without forcing assimilation. However, financial struggles and lack of federal support forced its closure by 1887.

Sarah’s personal life was marked by complexity. She married three times: first to an unnamed Native husband (details unknown), then briefly to Lt. Edward Bartlett in 1872, and finally to Lt. Lewis H. Hopkins in 1881, an Indian Department employee who supported her work but struggled with gambling and tuberculosis. Hopkins died in 1887, leaving Sarah financially strained. Rumors of a possible poisoning by a romantic rival at her death persist but remain unconfirmed.

Later Years and Legacy

After her husband’s death, Sarah’s health declined. She moved to Montana to live with her sister Elma, where she died of tuberculosis on October 16, 1891, at age 47. Feeling she had failed her people due to unfulfilled government promises, Sarah nonetheless left an indelible mark. Her tireless advocacy—over 400 speeches, petitions, and her autobiography—brought national attention to Native injustices.

Posthumously, Sarah’s legacy has grown. In 1993, she was inducted into the Nevada Writers Hall of Fame, and in 1994, the National Women’s Hall of Fame in Seneca Falls, New York. In 2005, a statue by Benjamin Victor was placed in the U.S. Capitol’s National Statuary Hall, honoring her contributions. Sarah Winnemucca Elementary School in Washoe County bears her name, and her book continues to be studied as a foundational text in Native American literature. Despite criticism from some Paiutes for her assimilationist stance and military collaboration, she is celebrated as a trailblazer who navigated two worlds to fight for her people’s survival and dignity.

Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins remains a powerful symbol of resilience, using her voice to challenge a nation to live up to its ideals. Her life, as she wrote, was a fight for her “down-trodden race,” a mission that resonates in the ongoing struggle for Indigenous rights.

Nevada State Historical Marker

Nevada State Historical Markers identify significant places of interest in Nevada’s history. The Nevada State Legislature started the program in 1967 to bring the state’s heritage to the public’s attention with on-site markers. These roadside markers bring attention to the places, people, and events that make up Nevada’s heritage. They are as diverse as the counties they are located within and range from the typical mining boom and bust town to the largest and most accessible petroglyph sites in Northern Nevada Budget cuts to the program caused the program to become dormant in 2009. Many of the markers are lost or damaged.

Sarah Winnemucca, whose Paiute name was Thocmentony (Shell-flower), was the daughter of Chief Winnemucca, and granddaughter of Captain Truckee, a friend and supporter of Captain John C. Frémont.  Sarah Winnemucca sought understanding between her people and European Americans when the latter settled on Paiute homelands.  Sarah lectured, wrote a foundational book in American Indian literature, and founded the non-government Peabody School for Native children outside of Lovelock, Nevada.  She worked tirelessly to remedy injustice for her people and to advocate peace.  Here at Fort McDermitt she served as an interpreter and teacher.  Because of her importance to the nation’s history, Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins was honored in 2005 with a statue in the National Statuary Hall of the U.S. Capitol.

STATE HISTORIC MARKER No. 143

 STATE HISTORIC PRESERVATION OFFICE

MRS. CURTIS S. HARNER

Nevada State Historical Marker Summary

NameSarah Winnemucca Hopkins
LocationHumboldt County, Nevada
Nevada State Historica Marker Number143
Latitude, Longitude41.9725, -117.6219

Nevada State Historical Marker Map

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Billy Claiborne

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William "Billy" Claiborne was one of five outlaw Cowboys at the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral. He was unarmed and fled
William “Billy” Claiborne was one of five outlaw Cowboys at the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral. He was unarmed and fled

Billy Claiborne was an American Old West gunfighter and outlaw known for his involvement in some of the most famous events of the period, particularly in Tombstone, Arizona. Born in 1860 in Yazoo County, Mississippi, Claiborne’s early life is somewhat obscure, but he rose to infamy during his time in Tombstone, where he became associated with notorious figures like the Clanton and McLaury brothers.

Early Life

Little is known about Claiborne’s early years, including his family background or what led him to the West. Like many young men of the time, he was likely drawn by the prospect of adventure, opportunity, and perhaps the hope of striking it rich in the burgeoning mining towns.

Tombstone and the Earp-Clanton Feud

Claiborne arrived in Tombstone, Arizona, during a time of significant tension between lawmen and outlaws. The town was a hotbed of conflict, particularly between the Earp brothers (Wyatt, Virgil, and Morgan) and a group of outlaws known as the Cowboys, which included Ike Clanton, Curly Bill Brocius, and the McLaury brothers.

Claiborne became associated with the Cowboys, a loose affiliation of rustlers, ranchers, and bandits who were at odds with the Earp brothers. Claiborne wasn’t as prominent as some of the other members of the group, but he was known for his quick temper and willingness to engage in violence.

The Shootout at the O.K. Corral

Claiborne’s most infamous connection is with the Shootout at the O.K. Corral, one of the most famous gunfights in the history of the American West. The shootout occurred on October 26, 1881, and involved the Earp brothers, their ally Doc Holliday, and members of the Cowboys. Claiborne was present during the events leading up to the gunfight but did not directly participate in the shootout itself. However, he was friends with Billy Clanton, one of the Cowboys who was killed in the gunfight.

Claiborne did testify for the prosecution at the preliminary hearing of Wyatt Earp and Doc Holliday, but the two men are exonerated.

Violent End

After the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral on October 26, 1881, Claiborne’s life took a downward spiral. He idolized William “Billy the Kid” Bonney and even adopted the nickname “Billy the Kid” after the latter’s death in 1881. Claiborne’s growing reputation as an outlaw and his increasingly erratic behavior led to a series of confrontations with lawmen and citizens alike.

In November 1882, Billy Claiborne’s life came to a tragic end in Tombstone, Arizona. The exact circumstances of his death involve a confrontation that escalated into violence. Claiborne, who was reportedly intoxicated, had a dispute with a local gambler and gunman named Franklin “Buckskin” Leslie.

Leslie, known as a skilled marksman and a man not to be trifled with, was confronted by Claiborne on the streets of Tombstone. Claiborne, emboldened by alcohol and his desire to prove himself as a dangerous gunman, challenged Leslie to a fight. Accounts of the event vary, but it is generally believed that Claiborne drew his weapon first. However, Leslie, quick on the draw, fired at Claiborne, hitting him and inflicting fatal wounds.

Billy Claiborne succumbed to his injuries shortly after the confrontation. He was buried in Tombstone’s Boothill Graveyard, a resting place for many of the town’s notorious characters. His death marked the end of a brief and troubled life, largely overshadowed by the more infamous figures of the Old West.

Franklin “Buckskin” Leslie, the man who shot Claiborne, continued his life as a gambler and gunman, eventually fading into obscurity. Claiborne’s death is often remembered as a cautionary tale of the dangers of living by the gun in a lawless and tumultuous time.

Legacy

Billy Claiborne is remembered as a minor figure in the tumultuous history of Tombstone and the American West. While he lacked the notoriety of more famous gunfighters, his life and death are emblematic of the chaotic and often violent nature of frontier life. His involvement with the Cowboys and his death at the hands of “Buckskin” Frank Leslie have ensured that he remains a part of the legend of Tombstone, even if his role was a relatively small one.

Rhinehart Petrasch

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Rhinehart Petrasch of Phoenix, Arizona, is best known for prospecting and ranching, and was said to have spent considerable time searching for the Lost Dutchman Mine. He had an influential figure in the development and history of the mining industry in the Southwestern United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His life and work contributed significantly to the economic growth of the region.

Early Life and Background

Rhinehart Petrasch was born on March 14, 1859, in Germany. His family immigrated to the United States when he was a young boy, settling in the Midwest before eventually moving to the Western territories. The promise of wealth and opportunity in the mining boom attracted the family westward, where Rhinehart and his siblings would make a significant impact.

Career in Mining

Petrasch initially worked in various mining camps across the West, gaining valuable experience and knowledge in mining operations. He became well-known for his skills as a prospector and his ability to locate valuable mineral deposits. His reputation grew, leading him to settle in Phoenix, Arizona, where he played a crucial role in the development of several key mining projects.

One of his most notable achievements was his involvement in the discovery and development of the Lost Dutchman’s Gold Mine. The mine became legendary, not only for its purported riches but also for the mystery and lore that surrounded it. Although the exact details of Petrasch’s involvement remain somewhat shrouded in myth, his contributions to the mining community and local economy are well-documented.

Contributions to Phoenix and the Mining Community

Beyond his mining ventures, Rhinehart Petrasch was an active member of the Phoenix community. He invested in local businesses, supported infrastructure development, and was involved in various civic activities. His efforts helped shape the economic landscape of Phoenix and contributed to its growth as a burgeoning city in the American Southwest.

Legacy

Rhinehart Petrasch’s legacy is remembered in Arizona history as a pioneer of the mining industry. His work exemplified the rugged determination and entrepreneurial spirit that characterized the West during the mining boom. Although much of his life is intertwined with the myths and legends of the Old West, his tangible contributions to the development of Phoenix and the surrounding areas remain a testament to his impact.

Personal Life

Rhinehart Petrasch married his long-time partner, Emma, with whom he had three children. The family was known for their involvement in the local community, and Petrasch’s descendants continued to play active roles in Arizona’s development well into the 20th century.

Rhinehart Petrasch passed away on January 5, 1923, leaving behind a legacy of exploration, hard work, and community involvement. His story is a fascinating chapter in the rich history of Arizona and the American West.

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Waterman S Bodey

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Waterman S Bodey (14 May 1814 – 9 Dec 1859 ) was a prospector whose name became immortalized in the annals of American mining history through the town of Bodie, California. Little is known about Bodey’s early life, but his story intersects with the era of the California Gold Rush, a period marked by the discovery of gold in 1848 and the subsequent influx of prospectors and fortune seekers to the Sierra Nevada region.

Bodey hailed from Poughkeepsie, New York, and like many others, he was drawn to the West by the promise of gold and a better life. In 1859, Bodey, along with a companion named E.S. “Black” Taylor, discovered gold in the hills east of the Sierra Nevada, near what is now the Nevada-California border. This discovery marked the beginning of what would later become the town of Bodie.

Despite the potential of his discovery, Bodey did not live to see the full flourishing of the town that bore his name. Tragically, in November of 1859, Waterman S. Bodey perished in a blizzard while attempting to return to his camp with supplies from Monoville, a nearby settlement. His untimely death left him largely unknown, even as the settlement he helped found grew.

The town of Bodie itself experienced a boom in the late 1870s following the discovery of a profitable gold vein by the Standard Company in 1876. This discovery sparked a rush to the area, transforming the camp into a thriving mining town with a population that swelled to around 10,000 people at its peak. The town gained a reputation for its lawlessness and rough character, epitomizing the wild and often violent nature of frontier mining towns.

By the 1880s, the boom began to wane as the mines yielded less gold and people moved on to other opportunities. Despite several periods of revival, Bodie eventually became a ghost town, largely abandoned by the early 20th century. Today, Bodie is preserved in a state of arrested decay as a California State Historic Park, drawing visitors who are fascinated by its history and the remnants of its once vibrant community.

Waterman S. Bodey’s legacy lives on through the town that bears his name, a symbol of the rugged determination and perilous fortune-seeking spirit that characterized the California Gold Rush era.

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Julia Thomas

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Julia Thomas (c. 1862–1917) was a pivotal figure in the enduring legend of the Lost Dutchman’s Mine, a tale of hidden gold in Arizona’s Superstition Mountains, inextricably linked to the German prospector Jacob Waltz (c. 1810–1891). While Thomas’s life intersected with Waltz’s during his final days, her role in popularizing the myth of his lost mine cemented her place in American frontier history. This biography explores her life, her connection to Waltz, and her contributions to the legend, drawing on historical accounts while acknowledging the speculative nature of some details.

Early Life and Background

Little is documented about Julia Thomas’s early life, but historical records indicate she was born around 1862, possibly in the United States, and was described as a woman of mixed racial heritage, sometimes referred to as a “quadroon” in contemporary accounts. By the late 1880s, she had settled in Phoenix, Arizona Territory, where she operated a bakery and confectionery shop. This business was her primary source of income, and as a woman proprietor in the late 19th century—particularly one of color—she stood out as an uncommonly independent figure in a male-dominated, racially stratified society.

By 1891, Thomas was navigating personal challenges, including a divorce, which likely strained her financial stability. Her bakery, while a testament to her entrepreneurial spirit, was not enough to shield her from the economic precarity of the time. It was in this context that her path crossed with Jacob Waltz, a reclusive German immigrant and prospector whose reputed discovery of a rich gold mine would define Thomas’s legacy.

Connection to Jacob Waltz

Photograph take of Jacob Waltz after his arrival in New York.
Photograph take of Jacob Waltz after his arrival in New York.

Jacob Waltz, often called the “Dutchman” (a misnomer derived from “Deutsch,” meaning German), was a prospector who arrived in Arizona in the 1860s. By the 1870s, he was known for periodically appearing in Phoenix with high-grade gold ore, the source of which he guarded jealously. In February 1891, a devastating flood along the Salt River destroyed Waltz’s homestead, leaving the aging prospector (then in his early 80s) destitute and ill, likely with pneumonia.

Thomas, described as a friend or acquaintance of Waltz, took him into her home and nursed him for several months. Some accounts suggest she was motivated by compassion, while others speculate she saw an opportunity to secure payment for his care, possibly through his rumored wealth. Waltz died on October 25, 1891, in Thomas’s home, an event that marked a turning point in her life and sparked the legend of the Lost Dutchman’s Mine.

Two conflicting narratives emerged about Waltz’s final days. According to Thomas, Waltz confided in her about the location of his mine, providing directions and possibly helping her draw a map. She claimed he intended for her to have a box of gold ore stored under his bed as payment for her care. However, Dick Holmes, a Phoenix local who was present on the night of Waltz’s death, asserted that Waltz gave him the gold and detailed directions to the mine during a deathbed confession. The dispute over the gold—reportedly 48 pounds of rich ore—and the mine’s location created a rift that fueled decades of debate among treasure hunters.

The Expedition and the Birth of a Legend

Rhinehart Petrasch - 1954 from Curse of the Dutchman's Gold
Rhinehart Petrasch – 1954 from Curse of the Dutchman’s Gold

Following Waltz’s death, Thomas acted swiftly to capitalize on his story. In 1892, she partnered with Rhinehart and Herman Petrasch, two German immigrant brothers, to search for the mine in the Superstition Mountains. At 29 years old, Thomas was an unlikely expedition leader, given the era’s gender norms and the rugged terrain of the Superstitions. The trio embarked in mid-July, a perilous time due to the desert’s extreme heat. The expedition was a failure, yielding no trace of the mine and nearly costing them their lives. Financially ruined, Thomas parted ways with the Petrasch brothers and never attempted another search.

Undeterred by her failure, Thomas leveraged the mystique of Waltz’s mine to sustain herself. She began selling maps purportedly based on Waltz’s directions for $8 each, a significant sum at the time. Her account of the expedition was published in the Arizona Weekly Gazette, and she likely provided information to journalist Pierpont C. Bicknell, whose articles in the San Francisco Chronicle brought national attention to the Lost Dutchman’s Mine. Thomas’s maps and stories, while criticized as embellished or fabricated by some, laid the foundation for the legend’s enduring appeal. Her entrepreneurial flair for publicity—whether intentional or opportunistic—transformed a local tale into a national obsession, inspiring countless treasure hunters and shaping the mythos of the American West.

Later Life and Legacy

In July 1893, Thomas remarried, wedding Albert Schaefer. The couple became known in Phoenix for eccentric behavior, including ritualistic burnt offerings in their front yard, which some accounts describe as cult-like. These practices may have reflected personal beliefs or an attempt to maintain public attention, but they further distanced Thomas from mainstream society.

Thomas’s financial situation never recovered from the failed expedition. She spent her later years in poverty, a stark contrast to the wealth she sought in the Superstitions. On December 15, 1917, she died of Bright’s disease (a kidney ailment) at age 55. Ironically, the route of her 1892 expedition passed over the sites of the Mammoth and Black Queen mines, two of Arizona’s richest gold deposits, discovered shortly after her search.

Historical Significance and Critical Perspective

Julia Thomas’s role in the Lost Dutchman’s Mine legend is both celebrated and scrutinized. To some, she was a savvy opportunist who amplified a dying man’s tale for profit, possibly fabricating details to cover unpaid debts or capitalize on Waltz’s reputation. Others view her as a victim of circumstance, a woman whose limited options in a patriarchal society led her to pursue a risky venture that ultimately failed. Her status as a woman of color adds complexity to her story, as her independence and visibility in Phoenix were remarkable for the time, yet likely contributed to her marginalization.

The veracity of Waltz’s mine remains debated. Some argue the Superstition Mountains, being igneous, lack significant gold deposits, suggesting Waltz’s ore came from elsewhere, possibly California or Colorado. Others, citing Waltz’s documented sales of gold to the U.S. Mint, believe the mine existed, though its location may have been a cache rather than a traditional vein. Thomas’s maps and stories, while influential, are often dismissed as unreliable, yet they reflect her agency in shaping a narrative that has outlived her.

Julia Thomas died penniless, but her legacy endures in the lore of the Lost Dutchman’s Mine. Her actions—nursing Waltz, leading an expedition, and selling maps—transformed a prospector’s secret into a cultural phenomenon. The Superstition Mountains, now part of Lost Dutchman State Park, draw thousands annually, many inspired by the tale Thomas helped create. Her life, marked by resilience and ambition, embodies the entrepreneurial spirit and harsh realities of the American frontier, forever tied to the enigmatic Jacob Waltz and his elusive gold.

Further Reading

The Curse of the Dutchman's Gold by Helen Corbin

The Curse of the Dutchman’s Gold by Helen Corbin

The Curse of the Dutchman's Gold by Helen Corbin Helen Corbin's The Curse of the Dutchman's Gold is the first book I have read on…

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