Manzanar California

Manzanar Enterance and sign. Photograph by Ansel Adam
Manzanar Enterance and sign. IMAGE: ANSEL ADAMS/LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
Rebuilt Guardtower located an Manzanar Relocation Camp.  Photo by James L Rathbun
Rebuilt Guardtower located an Manzanar Relocation Camp. Photo by James L Rathbun

Manzanar, located in California’s Owens Valley, was one of ten internment camps established by the United States government during World War II to detain Japanese Americans and Japanese immigrants. Operational from 1942 to 1945, it became a symbol of a dark chapter in American history, reflecting the impact of wartime hysteria, racial prejudice, and civil rights violations. This report examines the historical context, establishment, life within the camp, its closure, and its legacy.

Historical Context

Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, fear and suspicion of Japanese Americans grew on the West Coast. Despite no evidence of disloyalty, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, authorizing the forced removal of approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans—two-thirds of whom were U.S. citizens—from their homes. The War Relocation Authority (WRA) was created to oversee the relocation and internment process. Manzanar was one of the first camps established under this policy.

Establishment of Manzanar

Manzanar, located 220 miles northeast of Los Angeles near the Sierra Nevada, was selected for its remote location and existing infrastructure from a former agricultural community. The site spanned 6,200 acres, with the internment camp occupying 540 acres. Construction began in March 1942, and the camp opened on March 21, 1942, initially as a temporary “reception center.” By June, it was designated a War Relocation Center.

The camp consisted of 36 residential blocks, each with 14 barracks, a mess hall, and communal facilities. Barbed wire and eight guard towers surrounded the camp, emphasizing its prison-like nature. At its peak, the relocation camp housed over 10,000 internees, primarily from Los Angeles, San Francisco, and the Pacific Northwest.

Life in Manzanar

Life in the camp was marked by hardship, resilience, and community-building under oppressive conditions.

Living Conditions

  • Housing: Internees lived in cramped, poorly insulated barracks divided into 20×25-foot units. Families shared these spaces with minimal privacy, using blankets or makeshift partitions. Harsh weather—scorching summers and freezing winters—exacerbated discomfort.
  • Food and Work: Meals were served in mess halls, often consisting of low-quality food like mutton or rice. Internees worked in roles such as farming, teaching, or medical care, earning $12-$19 monthly. Some cultivated crops like guayule for rubber production.
  • Education and Recreation: Schools were established for children, though resources were limited. Internees organized sports, cultural events, and newspapers like the Manzanar Free Press to maintain morale.

Photographer: Lange, Dorothea -- Manzanar, California. 7/2/42 Identifier: Volume 22 Identifier: Section C Identifier: WRA no. C-837 Collection: War Relocation Authority Photographs of Japanese-American Evacuation and Resettlement Series 8: Manzanar Relocation Center (Manzanar, CA) Contributing Institution: The Bancroft Library. University of California, Berkeley.
Photographer: Lange, Dorothea — Manzanar, California. 7/2/42 Identifier: Volume 22 Identifier: Section C Identifier: WRA no. C-837 Collection: War Relocation Authority Photographs of Japanese-American Evacuation and Resettlement Series 8: Manzanar Relocation Center (Manzanar, CA) Contributing Institution: The Bancroft Library. University of California, Berkeley.

Challenges and Resistance

Internees faced loss of freedom, dignity, and property. Many had been forced to sell businesses and homes at a fraction of their value. Tensions occasionally flared, notably during the Manzanar Riot (December 6, 1942), sparked by the arrest of a popular internee leader. The clash resulted in two deaths and several injuries when military police fired on protesters.

Despite these challenges, internees demonstrated resilience. They created gardens, art, and community organizations, preserving cultural identity and hope.

Closure and Aftermath

As World War II ended, the camp is closed on November 21, 1945. Internees were given $25 and a one-way ticket to return to often-hostile communities. Many faced economic hardship and discrimination, having lost their pre-war livelihoods. The camp’s infrastructure was dismantled, leaving little physical evidence of its existence.

Photo by Ansel Adams

Legacy

Manzanar stands as a stark reminder of the consequences of fear-driven policy and racial prejudice. In 1988, the U.S. government formally apologized through the Civil Liberties Act, providing $20,000 in reparations to surviving internees. The site was designated a National Historic Site in 1992, managed by the National Park Service. Today, it features a visitor center, reconstructed barracks, and exhibits preserving the stories of those interned.

The camp’s history has inspired art, literature, and activism. Works like Farewell to Manzanar by Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston and the photography of Ansel Adams and Dorothea Lange document the internees’ experiences. Manzanar serves as a call to uphold civil liberties and combat discrimination.

Conclusion

Manzanar encapsulates a complex interplay of injustice and human resilience. Its history underscores the importance of safeguarding constitutional rights during times of crisis. By studying the effects of the relocation, we honor the strength of those who endured it and commit to preventing such violations in the future.

Summary

NameManzanar
LocationInyo County, California
Latitude, Longitude36.7283, -118.1544
Elevation3,850 ft
GNIS1659050
Population10,000+
Newspaper Manzanar Free Press (1942 – 1945)
National Register of Historic Places76000484
Manzanar Cemetery Monument.  Photo By James L Rathbun
Manzanar Cemetery Monument. Photo By James L Rathbun

Other Japanese Internment Camps:

  • Gila River War Relocation Center, Arizona
  • Granada War Relocation Center, Colorado (AKA “Amache”)
  • Heart Mountain War Relocation Center, Wyoming
  • Jerome War Relocation Center, Arkansas
  • Manzanar War Relocation Center, California
  • Minidoka War Relocation Center, Idaho
  • Poston War Relocation Center, Arizona
  • Rohwer War Relocation Center, Arkansas
  • Topaz War Relocation Center, Utah
  • Tule Lake War Relocation Center, California

Manzanar Map

Photos around Manzanar War Relocation Center

Further Reading

Farewell to Manzanar, by Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston

Farewell to Manzanar

Farewell to Manzanar, by Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston In Farewell to Manzanar, Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston recalls her childhood at a Japanese incarceration camp in this engrossing…
Manzanar (Images of America) by Jane Wehrey

Manzanar (Images of America)

Manzanar (Images of America) by Jane Wehrey Through a collection of vintage photographs, the Images of America series allows readers to explore the history that…

References

Ghost Town Living: Mining for Purpose and Chasing Dreams at the Edge of Death Valley

Ghost Town Living: Mining for Purpose and Chasing Dreams at the Edge of Death Valley written by Brent Underwood
Ghost Town Living: Mining for Purpose and Chasing Dreams at the Edge of Death Valley written by Brent Underwood

The siren song of Cerro Gordo, a desolate ghost town perched high above Death Valley, has seduced thousands since the 1800s, but few fell harder for it than Brent Underwood, who moved there in March of 2020, only to be immediately snowed in and trapped for weeks.

It had once been the largest silver mine in California. Over $500 million worth of ore was pulled from the miles of tunnels below the town. Butch Cassidy, Mark Twain, and other infamous characters of the American West were rumored to have stayed there. Newspapers reported a murder a week. But that was over 150 years ago.

Underwood bet his life savings—and his life—on this majestic, hardscrabble town that had broken its fair share of ambitious men and women. What followed were fires, floods, earthquakes, and perhaps strangest, fame. Ghost Town Living tells the story of a man against the elements, a forgotten historic place against the modern world, and a dream against all odds—one that has captured millions of followers around the world.

He came looking for a challenge different from the traditional 9-5 job but discovered something much more fulfilling—an undertaking that would call on all of himself and push him beyond what he knew he was capable of. In fact, to bring this abandoned town back to life, Brent had to learn a wealth of new self-sufficiency and problem-solving skills from many generous mentors.

Ghost Town Living is a thrilling read, but it’s also a call to action—to question our too-practical lives and instead seek adventure, build something original, redefine work, and embrace the unknown. It shows what it means to dedicate your life to something, to take a mighty swing at a crazy idea and, like the cardsharps who once haunted Cerro Gordo, go all in.

About the Author

Brent Underwood is the owner of Cerro Gordo, an original boomtown silver mine, established in 1865. He is also the creator of “GhostTownLiving” where he chronicles his adventures on YouTube. Brent currently lives on the mountain above Death Valley with no running water, seven cats, six goats, and at least one ghost.

Book Summary

TitleDeath Valley Gold Rush (Images of Ghost Town Living: Mining for Purpose and Chasing Dreams at the Edge of Death Valley
AuthorBrent Underwood
PublisherHarmony Publishing
Pages228 Pages

Thomas Boland

Thomas Boland, a notable figure in the history of Cerro Gordo, California.  ( April 7, 1835 - January 22, 1902 )
Thomas Boland, a notable figure in the history of Cerro Gordo, California. ( April 7, 1835 – January 22, 1902 )

Thomas Boland, a notable figure in the history of Cerro Gordo, California, was born on April 7, 1835, in County Cork, Ireland. Boland’s early life was marked by hardship and resilience, qualities that would serve him well throughout his career. He immigrated to the United States during the Great Irish Famine, seeking better opportunities and the chance to build a new life.

Upon arriving in America, Boland initially settled in New York City, where he worked various labor-intensive jobs. His strong work ethic and determination soon led him westward, drawn by the promise of the California Gold Rush in the early 1850s. Like many immigrants of his time, Boland was eager to seize the opportunities presented by the rapidly expanding American frontier.

In the mid-1860s, Boland made his way to the Inyo Mountains of California, where he became involved in the burgeoning mining industry. The discovery of rich silver and lead deposits at Cerro Gordo attracted miners and entrepreneurs from all over the country. Boland, with his extensive experience and keen business sense, quickly established himself as a prominent figure in the mining community.

Boland’s contributions to Cerro Gordo were multifaceted. As a mining engineer and manager, he played a crucial role in developing the infrastructure necessary for large-scale mining operations. His expertise in geology and mining techniques helped optimize the extraction processes, significantly increasing the productivity of the mines. Boland was instrumental in implementing innovative technologies and methods that enhanced the efficiency and safety of mining activities.

One of Boland’s most significant achievements was his involvement in the construction of the Cerro Gordo Tramway, an aerial tramway designed to transport ore from the mines to the nearby Owens Valley. This engineering marvel, which spanned several miles of rugged terrain, revolutionized the transportation of ore and greatly reduced the costs associated with its movement. The tramway’s success was a testament to Boland’s vision and ingenuity.

In addition to his technical contributions, Boland was known for his leadership and commitment to the well-being of the mining community. He advocated for better working conditions, fair wages, and safety measures for the miners, earning their respect and loyalty. Boland’s efforts to improve living conditions in Cerro Gordo included the establishment of housing, schools, and healthcare facilities, which helped create a more stable and prosperous community.

Thomas Boland’s impact on Cerro Gordo extended beyond his lifetime. His pioneering spirit and dedication to innovation set a standard for future mining operations in the region. Boland’s legacy is remembered not only through his technical achievements but also through his commitment to the welfare of the people who lived and worked in Cerro Gordo.

Boland passed away on January 22, 1902, leaving behind a legacy of industrial progress and community development. His contributions to Cerro Gordo are a testament to the transformative power of hard work, innovation, and a steadfast commitment to improving the lives of others. Today, Thomas Boland is celebrated as one of the key figures who helped shape the history and success of Cerro Gordo during its most prosperous years.

Julius M. Keeler

Julius M. Keeler ( 
16 Jul 1823 - 28 Jan 1890 )
Julius M. Keeler ( 16 Jul 1823 – 28 Jan 1890 )

Julius M. Keeler, a prominent figure in the development of the American West, was born on June 4, 1838, in Binghamton, New York. His early years were marked by a strong work ethic and a fascination with the burgeoning opportunities that the western frontier promised. These qualities would drive him to become a significant contributor to the mining and transportation industries of his time.

Keeler’s journey westward began during the California Gold Rush. In the early 1860s, he moved to California, drawn by the allure of fortune and the chance to make a name for himself. He initially worked in various mining camps, gaining firsthand experience in the challenges and rewards of mining life. His intelligence and knack for problem-solving quickly set him apart, and he began to acquire small stakes in successful mining ventures.

By the late 1870s, Keeler had established himself as a savvy and resourceful entrepreneur. His involvement with the Cerro Gordo Mines in the Inyo Mountains of California marked a turning point in his career. Alongside investors like Mortimer Belshaw, Keeler recognized the immense potential of the rich silver and lead deposits in the region. Their combined efforts transformed Cerro Gordo into one of the most productive mining operations in California.

Keeler’s role at Cerro Gordo extended beyond mining. Understanding the critical need for efficient transportation of ore, he spearheaded the construction of a wagon road to connect the remote mining camp with the Owens Valley. This road, later complemented by the narrow-gauge Carson and Colorado Railway, was crucial in ensuring the economic viability of the mines by facilitating the transport of ore to smelters and markets.

In recognition of his contributions to the region, the town of Keeler, California, was named in his honor. The town served as a vital shipping point for the Cerro Gordo Mines and played a significant role in the local economy. Under Keeler’s influence, the area saw improvements in infrastructure and living conditions, benefiting both the mining community and the broader region.

Beyond his achievements in mining and transportation, Julius M. Keeler was known for his philanthropic endeavors. He supported various community initiatives, including the establishment of schools and healthcare facilities. His commitment to improving the lives of those around him reflected his belief in the potential of the American West as a place of opportunity and growth for all its inhabitants.

Keeler’s later years were spent overseeing his various business interests and continuing his philanthropic work. He remained a respected figure in the community until his death on January 15, 1908. His legacy is remembered through the lasting impact of his contributions to the mining industry and the development of the Owens Valley region.

Julius M. Keeler’s life story is a testament to the spirit of innovation, determination, and community-mindedness that characterized the American frontier during its most transformative years. His work not only advanced the economic prospects of his time but also laid the groundwork for future generations to thrive in the West.

References

Mortimer William Belshaw

Mortimer Belshaw (1830 - 1899 )
Mortimer Belshaw (1830 – 1899 )

Mortimer William Belshaw, often remembered for his significant contributions to the mining industry in the American West, was born on November 30, 1833, in New York City. His early life was marked by a keen interest in geology and engineering, which would later shape his career and legacy.

Belshaw moved to California during the Gold Rush era in search of fortune and adventure. His arrival in California coincided with a period of intense economic and industrial development, particularly in mining. Belshaw’s technical skills and innovative mindset quickly distinguished him from many of his contemporaries. He initially worked in various mining operations, gaining valuable experience and knowledge about the industry.

In the early 1860s, Belshaw became involved with the Cerro Gordo Mines in the Inyo Mountains of California. This venture would become his most notable achievement. Recognizing the potential of the rich silver and lead deposits in the area, Belshaw partnered with other investors to develop the mines. His engineering expertise was crucial in overcoming the significant logistical challenges posed by the remote and rugged location of the mines.

Belshaw’s most famous contribution to the Cerro Gordo Mines was the construction of an innovative transportation system known as the Belshaw Tramway. This aerial tramway, one of the earliest of its kind, was designed to transport ore from the mines to the smelters more efficiently than traditional methods. The tramway significantly boosted the productivity of the Cerro Gordo Mines, leading to a period of substantial economic success for Belshaw and his partners.

Under Belshaw’s management, the Cerro Gordo Mines became one of the most productive mining operations in California during the late 19th century. The wealth generated from the mines contributed to the growth and development of the surrounding region, including the establishment of the town of Cerro Gordo, which became a bustling mining community.

Beyond his technical achievements, Belshaw was known for his fair treatment of workers and his efforts to improve working conditions in the mines. He believed in the importance of safety and welfare for his employees, which was relatively progressive for the time. This approach not only garnered loyalty from his workforce but also set a precedent for more humane labor practices in the mining industry.

Belshaw’s success at Cerro Gordo allowed him to invest in other mining ventures and businesses, further cementing his status as a prominent figure in the mining industry. Despite facing various challenges, including fluctuating metal prices and occasional legal disputes, Belshaw’s entrepreneurial spirit and resilience ensured his continued influence in the field.

Mortimer Belshaw passed away on January 19, 1905, leaving behind a legacy of innovation and progress in the mining industry. His contributions to mining engineering and his commitment to improving labor conditions remain influential, highlighting his role as a pioneer in the development of modern mining practices.