Category: Destination4x4

Sacramento River Steamships

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Photograph of a view of the steamship J.D. Peters on the Sacramento River, 1900-1910. The large steamship is at center and is spewing dark smoke from twin smokestacks. There are three decks above the waterline, and the pilot house can be seen above the third deck. Several men are standing near the bow of the ship. The river water is very calm. Small wooden houses can be seen on the shore of the river at left and also in the distance at right.

Early Beginnings (1847–1849)

The history of steamships on the Sacramento River began in November 1847, when the Sitka, built by William A. Leidesdorff, briefly operated on San Francisco Bay and up the Sacramento River to New Helvetia. This marked the earliest recorded use of a steamboat in California’s inland waterways. However, regular steamboat service did not take hold until the California Gold Rush of 1848 transformed the Sacramento River into a vital transportation artery. The discovery of gold at Sutter’s Mill spurred a massive influx of fortune-seekers, and the river became the primary route connecting San Francisco’s port to the gold fields near Sacramento and beyond. Early shipping relied on ocean-going schooners and launches, which were slow, taking a week or more to navigate the river’s channels and sloughs. These vessels were often abandoned by crews eager to join the gold rush.

In 1849, the George Washington became the first steamboat to provide regular service between Sacramento and San Francisco, initiating a new era of river transportation. That same year, the Pioneer, assembled in Benicia from parts shipped from Boston, was launched by the Edward Everett Company, further establishing steam navigation. The Mint, a 36-foot iron-hulled vessel, was advertised in the Weekly Alta California on October 18, 1849, as the first steamboat offering transport between San Francisco and Sacramento, with a stop at Benicia. The McKim, a 400-ton ex-Army propeller-driven steamship, made its first regular run on October 26, 1849, completing the trip in 17 hours and generating significant revenue for its operators, Simmons, Hutchinson & Company.

Steamer Sacramento at wharf in San Francisco.
Steamer Sacramento at wharf in San Francisco.

The Gold Rush Boom (1850–1854)

The early 1850s saw an explosion of steamboat activity on the Sacramento River, driven by the gold rush’s economic frenzy. By 1850, an estimated 28 steamers operated on the river, with numbers growing each year. Steamships like the 755-ton SS Senator, a side-wheel steamer that arrived from Boston via Cape Horn, began service in November 1849, earning up to $60,000 monthly. The Senator and McKim alternated schedules to provide near-daily service between San Francisco and Sacramento. Fares were initially high—$30 for cabin passage and $20 for deck—but fierce competition soon drove prices down to as low as $1.

Steamships extended their reach beyond Sacramento, navigating tributaries like the American, Feather, and Yuba Rivers to serve mining communities. The 42-ton Jack Hays reached Redding, the head of navigation on the Sacramento, during the spring flood of May 1850, and began regular service to support miners and traders in the Upper Sacramento region. On the San Joaquin River, the Captain Sutter became the first steamboat to reach Stockton in November 1849. Smaller vessels, such as the 52-ton Linda and 36.5-ton Lawrence, operated above Sacramento, catering to remote mining camps.

The journey to California was perilous for many steamships. Several, including the Antelope, Goliah, and Wilson G. Hunt, braved the treacherous Cape Horn route under their own power, while others, like the New York and Rhode Island, were lost at sea. Many steamers were shipped in pieces from eastern shipyards, reassembled on the shores of Yerba Buena Cove, and launched into service. This ingenuity fueled the rapid expansion of river transport.

Competition among steamboat operators was intense, leading to fare wars that often pushed prices below operational costs. Safety was frequently compromised, with boiler explosions and collisions causing numerous accidents. A notable incident involved the Wilson G. Hunt racing the New World near Benicia, resulting in a boiler explosion on the latter. To curb this chaos, the California Steam Navigation Company was formed in 1854, consolidating many independent operators into a near-monopoly. This reduced competition but raised concerns about monopolistic pricing.

More details Chrysopolis, one of several large steamboats that served for transportation on the river during the California Gold Rush
More details Chrysopolis, one of several large steamboats that served for transportation on the river during the California Gold Rush

The Heyday of Steam Navigation (1855–1871)

The California Steam Navigation Company dominated Sacramento River transport in the late 1850s and 1860s, operating a fleet of 32 sidewheel and sternwheel steamships, 21 barges, and 20 wharves. Notable vessels included the Antelope, a 150-foot side-wheeler renowned for its speed and reliability, which transported gold for Wells Fargo in a fortified “Gold Room” and carried the first Pony Express mail in 1860. The Chrysopolis, launched in 1860, was a 240-foot “floating palace” capable of carrying 1,000 passengers and 700 tons of cargo. Its Victorian elegance and powerful engine made it a symbol of the era’s technological and aesthetic achievements.

Sternwheelers, like the Red Bluff (built in 1894), became preferred for upriver routes due to their shallow draft and maneuverability. These “skimmers” could navigate the river’s twisting channels and even operate in shallow waters during floods, rescuing stranded families and livestock. Steamboat captains also provided vital services, such as shopping in San Francisco for isolated farm wives, delivering goods on return trips.

Despite the company’s dominance, “opposition boats” like the Chin Du Wan persisted, using steam calliopes to attract passengers with lower fares and irregular schedules. These independent operators were a colorful feature of the river until the 1870s, when railroads began to challenge steamboat supremacy.

Decline and Legacy (1871–1950)

The rise of railroads, particularly after the Central Pacific Railroad acquired the California Steam Navigation Company in 1871, marked the beginning of the steamboat era’s decline. Improved roads, the completion of the Bay Bridge, and the expansion of Highway 80 further reduced the need for river transport. By the 1870s, the river was no longer the sole means of travel between Sacramento and San Francisco.

The Delta King and Delta Queen, launched in 1927, were the last great steamships on the Sacramento River. Known as the “million-dollar boats,” these luxurious vessels operated on the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta until 1940, when they ceased regular service. The Delta Queen later operated on the Mississippi River, while the Delta King became a hotel and restaurant in Old Sacramento. The final steamboat, the Petaluma, made its last trip in 1950, ending a century of steam navigation in California.

Cultural and Historical Impact

Sacramento River steamships played a pivotal role in California’s development, transforming the region from a sleepy waterway into a bustling transportation hub during the Gold Rush. They facilitated the movement of people, goods, and gold, shaping the economic and cultural landscape of Northern California. The river supported diverse communities, from Native American tribes like the Nisenan, who used its resources for millennia, to the settlers and miners who relied on steamships for survival and prosperity.

Today, the legacy of these steamships is preserved in places like the Sacramento History Museum and Old Sacramento Waterfront, where the Delta King serves as a reminder of the river’s storied past. Archaeological surveys have uncovered wrecks like the Sterling and the California, offering glimpses into the Gold Rush era. The Sacramento River remains a vital resource, providing water, supporting agriculture, and sustaining ecosystems, but its days as a steamboat highway are a cherished chapter in California’s history.

Needles – Colorado River Steamship Landing

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Needles, California, located along the Colorado River, played a significant role in the history of steamship navigation in the American Southwest during the mid-19th to early 20th centuries. The Colorado River served as a vital transportation corridor, connecting mining camps, military outposts, and settlements in Arizona and California. Steamships were instrumental in delivering supplies, passengers, and mail, particularly during the region’s mining booms and the establishment of rail connections. This report explores the history of steamships in Needles, their operations, key vessels, and their impact on the region’s development, drawing on historical records and accounts of the Colorado Steam Navigation Company and related enterprises.

Steamer "Cochan" on Colorado River at Needles. The Otis Marston Colorado River Collection The Huntington Library, San Marino, California.
Steamer “Cochan” on Colorado River at Needles. The Otis Marston Colorado River Collection The Huntington Library, San Marino, California.

Historical Context

The Colorado River, stretching from the Gulf of California to the Green River in Wyoming, was a challenging but navigable waterway for steamships from 1852 to 1909. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 and subsequent mining booms in Arizona spurred westward expansion, increasing the demand for reliable transportation. Steamships became a lifeline for isolated settlements, as overland routes were slow and vulnerable to harsh conditions and conflicts with Indigenous groups. Needles, established as a key point along the river due to its proximity to rail connections and mining operations, emerged as a hub for steamship activity by the late 19th century.

The Rise of Steamship Operations

Steamship service on the Colorado River began in November 1852 with the launch of the Uncle Sam, a modest sternwheeler powered by mesquite wood. Capable of carrying 40 tons of supplies, it demonstrated the feasibility of steam navigation despite the river’s swift currents and shifting sandbars. The Colorado Steam Navigation Company (CSNC), formed in the 1860s, dominated steamship operations, operating a fleet of sternwheelers and sidewheelers designed for the river’s shallow draft, requiring as little as 30 inches of water. These vessels, ranging from 35 to 149 feet in length, could haul up to 236 tons of cargo and passengers.

Needles became a focal point for steamship activity in the 1880s, particularly after the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad reached the town in 1883, connecting it to the Southern Pacific Railroad. The construction of a wooden bridge across the Colorado River at Needles, completed in 1883, relied heavily on steamships for logistical support. The Mohave II, a prominent sternwheeler, towed barges and assisted in driving pilings for the bridge, despite challenges from the river’s strong currents. Steamships also supported subsequent bridge repairs after floods in 1884, 1886, and 1888, and the construction of a cantilever bridge at Mellen (near Needles) in 1889–1890.

The "Aztec", which was run from Needles to Yuma until 1905 when it was wrecked a few miles below Needles during a severe sandstorm. - The Otis Marston Colorado River Collection - The Huntington Library, San Marino, California.
The “Aztec”, which was run from Needles to Yuma until 1905 when it was wrecked a few miles below Needles during a severe sandstorm. – The Otis Marston Colorado River Collection – The Huntington Library, San Marino, California.

Key Steamships Operating in Needles

Several steamships were associated with Needles, either as regular operators or through specific roles in supporting regional infrastructure:

  • Mohave II: A sternwheeler operated by the CSNC, the Mohave II was a workhorse of the Colorado River, active in the 1870s and 1880s. It played a critical role in supporting the construction of the railroad bridge at Needles by towing Barge No. 3, equipped with a pile driver, to secure pilings in the riverbed. In 1876, it carried a Sunday school group from Yuma, illustrating its role in community excursions.
  • Cochan: A sternwheeler operating around 1900, the Cochan made regular trips between Yuma and Needles, competing with the CSNC. Under the command of a former CSNC barge captain, it served mining camps and settlements, transporting supplies and passengers.
  • Searchlight: Launched in December 1902 at Needles, the Searchlight was the last sternwheeler built for the lower Colorado River. Operated by the Colorado River Transportation Company, it was 91 feet long and competed with the CSNC for trade to Quartette Landing and Searchlight, Nevada. Its launch marked the final phase of steamship construction in the region.
  • Gila: Active in the 1870s, the Gila was photographed at the Yuma Crossing in 1873, indicative of the type of sternwheelers that operated upriver to Needles. It supported mining operations and military outposts, carrying supplies and personnel.

These vessels were purpose-built for the Colorado River’s unique conditions, with stern paddlewheels that provided better maneuverability in heavy, sediment-laden waters compared to sidewheelers. Their shallow drafts allowed them to navigate sandbars, though they often required skilled pilots to avoid grounding.

Economic and Social Impact

Steamships were critical to the economic development of Needles and the surrounding region. They transported mining equipment, food, and other supplies to camps like Quartette Landing and Searchlight, supporting the region’s silver and gold mining booms. Passengers, including miners, settlers, and tourists, relied on steamships for travel to and from Needles, which served as a gateway to the interior. The CSNC’s steamships generated significant revenue, outpacing smaller river steamboats, and facilitated trade with Mexican ports and San Francisco.

Socially, steamships fostered community connections. Excursion trips, such as those by the Mohave II for Sunday school groups, provided recreational opportunities and strengthened regional ties. Steamships also carried mail, ensuring communication between remote settlements and the outside world. However, their operations were not without challenges, including competition from railroads and environmental obstacles like floods and low water levels.

Decline of Steamship Operations

The dominance of steamships in Needles began to wane in the late 19th century due to several factors:

  • Railroad Expansion: The completion of the Southern Pacific Railroad’s line to Needles in 1883 and the San Pedro, Los Angeles, and Salt Lake Railroad in 1905 shifted transportation from river to rail. Railroads offered faster, more reliable service, reducing the need for steamships.
  • Environmental Challenges: The Colorado River’s unpredictable flow, marked by seasonal floods and low water, made navigation difficult. The damming of the river, starting in 1905, further restricted long-distance travel, effectively ending steamship operations by 1909.
  • Competition: The Searchlight and other vessels faced competition from established operators like the CSNC and emerging rail networks, which cut into their profitability. By 1903, the Searchlight had already impacted CSNC’s trade, signaling the decline of steamship dominance.

By the early 20th century, steamships were relegated to occasional supply runs and excursions, with the Searchlight marking the end of new construction. The CSNC was absorbed by the Southern Pacific’s Western Development Company in 1877, and its operations dwindled as rail transport took over.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The steamships of Needles, California, left a lasting legacy in the development of the American Southwest. They enabled the growth of mining, trade, and settlement in a region where overland travel was arduous. The Mohave II, Cochan, and Searchlight symbolize the ingenuity of early steamship builders, who designed vessels capable of navigating one of the continent’s most challenging rivers. Their role in supporting the railroad bridge at Needles underscores their importance in integrating the region into national transportation networks.

Today, the history of these steamships is preserved in archival records, photographs, and historical accounts, such as those by Jerry MacMullen in Paddle-Wheel Days in California. The Colorado River’s steamship era, though brief, was a critical chapter in the story of Needles, reflecting the broader narrative of American expansion and technological adaptation. While the river is no longer navigable for steamships due to dams, the legacy of these vessels endures in the region’s cultural and economic heritage.

Conclusion

From the 1850s to the early 1900s, steamships were a cornerstone of transportation and economic activity in Needles, California. Operating under the Colorado Steam Navigation Company and other entities, vessels like the Mohave II, Cochan, and Searchlight connected Needles to the broader Southwest, supporting mining, rail construction, and community life. Their decline, driven by railroads and environmental changes, marked the end of an era, but their contributions to the region’s development remain significant. This report highlights the vital role of steamships in shaping Needles’ history and their enduring place in the story of the Colorado River.

Borate and Daggett Railroad

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More details Borate & Daggett Rail Road in Mule Canyon on way to Borate – Courtesy National Park Service, Death Valley National Park
More details Borate & Daggett Rail Road in Mule Canyon on way to Borate – Courtesy National Park Service, Death Valley National Park

The Borate and Daggett Railroad, a 3-foot narrow-gauge railway operational from 1898 to 1907 in California’s Mojave Desert, was a critical infrastructure project for the borax industry. Stretching 11 miles from Daggett to the Borate mining camp, it replaced inefficient mule teams, significantly reducing transportation costs for colemanite borax. Built by the Pacific Coast Borax Company under Francis Marion Smith, the railroad featured innovative engineering, including Heisler locomotives and a roasting mill for on-site ore processing. Despite its success, declining ore quality and the discovery of richer deposits elsewhere led to its abandonment in 1907.

Background

Francis Marion "Borax" Smith
Francis Marion “Borax” Smith

The borax industry gained prominence in the late 19th century due to the mineral’s applications in detergents, glass, and metallurgy. In 1883, colemanite deposits were discovered in the Calico Mountains, acquired by William Tell Coleman, who relied on twenty-mule teams to transport borax to railheads. After Coleman’s bankruptcy in 1890, Francis Marion Smith, the “Borax King,” took over, forming the Pacific Coast Borax Company. By 1899, the renamed Borate mine was the world’s largest, producing 22,000 short tons annually. The high cost and slow pace of mule teams necessitated a more efficient transport solution, leading to the railroad’s construction.

Construction and Design

Completed in 1898, the Borate and Daggett Railroad was a 3-foot narrow-gauge line designed to navigate the Calico Mountains’ 7% grades. The 11-mile route connected the Borate mine to Daggett, a Santa Fe mainline hub. Two Heisler steam locomotives, “Marion” and “Francis,” powered the line, leveraging geared drive systems for steep terrain. A roasting mill at the midpoint, named Marion, processed ore into burlap bags, and a third rail facilitated transfers to standard-gauge boxcars. The narrow gauge design and Heisler technology minimized costs while ensuring reliability in the harsh desert environment.

Operations and Economic Contributions

Borate & Daggett Heisler locomotive #2 "Francis" (s/n 1026), at Daggett, California in 1910. The locomotive helped to construct the Death Valley Railroad in 1913, before being sold to the Nevada Short Line Railway in 1916 where it retained its number #2.[4] It ended its days working for the Terry Lumber Company (later Red River) at Round Mountain, California until about 1925.
Borate & Daggett Heisler locomotive #2 “Francis” (s/n 1026), at Daggett, California in 1910. The locomotive helped to construct the Death Valley Railroad in 1913, before being sold to the Nevada Short Line Railway in 1916 where it retained its number #2. It ended its days working for the Terry Lumber Company (later Red River) at Round Mountain, California until about 1925.

From 1898 to 1904, the railroad was integral to the Pacific Coast Borax Company’s operations, transporting large colemanite volumes at lower costs than mule teams. The Marion mill enhanced efficiency by processing ore on-site. The railroad bolstered
Daggett’s role as a regional hub, supporting jobs and infrastructure. However, narrow gauge limitations, such as small train capacities, occasionally constrained output. At its peak, the railroad underpinned Borate’s status as the world’s leading borax mine, driving economic growth in the Mojave Desert.

Decline and Abandonment

More details Borate & Daggett Heisler locomotive #1 "Marion" (s/n 1018), at Daggett, California in 1910. It went on to work for the Forest Lumber Company in Oregon until the lumber mill at Pine Ridge burned to the ground in 1939.
More details Borate & Daggett Heisler locomotive #1 “Marion” (s/n 1018), at Daggett, California in 1910. It went on to work for the Forest Lumber Company in Oregon until the lumber mill at Pine Ridge burned to the ground in 1939.

By 1904, Borate’s colemanite quality declined, prompting Smith to focus on richer deposits at the Lila C. Mine in Death Valley. The Tonopah and Tidewater Railroad, completed in 1907, served the new mine, rendering the Borate and Daggett Railroad
obsolete. Mining at Borate ceased in 1907, and the railroad was abandoned. Rails were scrapped, and equipment was left in Daggett or repurposed for the Death Valley Railroad. The Heisler locomotives were later sold to the Forest Lumber Company in Oregon until they closed in 1939.

Legacy

The Borate and Daggett Railroad demonstrated the efficacy of narrow-gauge systems for mineral transport, influencing projects like the Death Valley Railroad. Its equipment reuse and documented history, including photographs and railbeds, preserve its legacy . The railroad exemplifies the interplay of technology and economics in the borax industry, highlighting the transient nature of resource-driven infrastructure in the American West.

Borate and Daggett Railroad Summary

NameBorate and Daggett Railroad
LocationMojave Desert, San Bernardino, California
Length11 miles
GageNarrow Gauge – 3 feet (914 mm)
Operational

Borate and Daggett Railroad Map

Bullfrog Miner

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The Bullfrog Miner newspapers published in 1907
The Bullfrog Miner newspapers published in 1907

The Bullfrog Miner was a weekly newspaper that served the burgeoning mining communities of the Bullfrog Mining District in Nye County, Nevada, during the early 20th century. Published between 1905 and 1909, the newspaper chronicled the rapid rise and eventual decline of the region’s gold and silver mining boom, providing a vital source of local news, mining updates, and community developments. This report explores the historical context, publication details, content, and significance of The Bullfrog Miner, drawing on available archival information.

Historical Context

The Bullfrog Mining District, located in the Bullfrog Hills of southern Nevada, emerged as a significant mining hub following the discovery of gold in 1904. The initial strike sparked a rush that led to the establishment of settlements such as Bullfrog, Rhyolite, and Beatty. By 1905, the region was bustling with activity, with an estimated 3,000 residents, numerous mining companies, and infrastructure developments like railroads and telegraph lines. The economic prosperity, however, was short-lived, as the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 and subsequent financial challenges led to a decline in mining activity by 1909.

The Bullfrog Miner was launched at the peak of this boom to serve the informational needs of the district’s residents, miners, and investors. It competed with other local newspapers, such as the Rhyolite Herald and the Beatty Bullfrog Miner, in a region where media played a critical role in promoting optimism and attracting investment.

Publication Details

  • Publication Period: March 31, 1905, to September 25, 1909.
  • Frequency: Weekly.
  • Locations:
    • Initially published in Bullfrog, Nye County, Nevada, by the Bullfrog Miner Print Company.
    • Later moved to Rhyolite, Nevada, by March 1906, reflecting the shift of economic activity to the larger town.
  • Publisher: F.P. Mannix is noted as a key publisher during its run.
  • Volume and Issues: The newspaper began with Volume 1, Number 1, on March 31, 1905, and ceased with Volume 5, Number 27, on September 25, 1909.
  • Availability: Microfilm copies are available from Bay Microfilm, and some issues may be held by libraries, as noted in the Library of Congress records.

A notable error in the newspaper’s publication occurred in the January 12, 1906, issue, which was misdated as January 12, 1905, likely due to a typesetting mistake.

Content and Role

The Bullfrog Miner covered a wide range of topics relevant to the mining district:

  • Mining News: Reports on mine developments, such as the West Extension Mine’s progress and ore discoveries, were central to the newspaper’s content. For example, it documented the West Extension’s shift to large-scale development in 1906 and its later financial troubles in 1909.
  • Local Events: The newspaper reported on community activities, including the establishment of post offices, banks, and businesses, as well as social events like the formation of the Rhyolite Symphony Orchestra.
  • Infrastructure Developments: It highlighted significant projects, such as the completion of telephone lines to Bullfrog and Rhyolite in 1906 and the Bullfrog-Goldfield Railroad’s operations.
  • Economic Optimism: Like many boomtown newspapers, The Bullfrog Miner maintained a positive tone to sustain investor confidence, rarely reporting discouraging news even as the district’s fortunes waned.

The newspaper also reflected the competitive dynamics of the region. As Rhyolite emerged as the district’s metropolis, The Bullfrog Miner relocated there, and its coverage increasingly focused on Rhyolite’s growth, including the construction of major buildings like the Overbury building and the establishment of a miners’ union hospital.

Significance

The Bullfrog Miner was more than a local news outlet; it was a cultural and economic artifact of the Bullfrog Mining District’s brief but intense boom. Its significance lies in several areas:

  • Historical Record: The newspaper provides a primary source for understanding the daily life, economic activities, and social dynamics of the Bullfrog Mining District. It captures the optimism of the 1905–1906 boom and the challenges faced during the decline.
  • Community Identity: By reporting on local achievements and developments, The Bullfrog Miner fostered a sense of community among the district’s diverse population of miners, promoters, and settlers.
  • Economic Promotion: The newspaper played a role in attracting investment by highlighting the district’s potential, even as financial difficulties mounted after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.
  • Archival Value: Despite its short run, the newspaper’s surviving issues offer valuable insights for historians studying Nevada’s mining history, particularly the boom-and-bust cycle that characterized the state’s economy.

Decline and Closure

The Bullfrog Miner’s closure in September 1909 was emblematic of the broader decline of the Bullfrog Mining District. Several factors contributed to its demise:

  • Economic Downturn: The San Francisco earthquake and fire of 1906 disrupted financial markets, weakening investor confidence in mining ventures. By 1909, many mines, including the West Extension, were idle or facing lawsuits.
  • Population Decline: As mining operations slowed, residents left the district. The 1909 tax rolls revealed that 28% of property owners abandoned their holdings, followed by 44% in 1910.
  • Competition: The Rhyolite Herald and other local publications outlasted The Bullfrog Miner, which struggled to maintain relevance as Rhyolite’s dominance grew.
  • Closure of Local Institutions: The failure of two Rhyolite banks and the closure of the Rhyolite Daily Bulletin in May 1909 signaled the district’s economic collapse, leaving The Bullfrog Miner with a dwindling readership.

Conclusion

The Bullfrog Miner was a vital voice of the Bullfrog Mining District during its brief but vibrant existence. From its first issue in 1905 to its final publication in 1909, it documented the hopes, achievements, and challenges of a community driven by the promise of gold and silver. While its optimistic reporting could not forestall the district’s decline, the newspaper remains a valuable historical resource, offering a window into Nevada’s mining frontier. Researchers can access its microfilm archives to explore the stories of a boomtown era that shaped the region’s identity.

References

  • Library of Congress, Chronicling America: The Bullfrog Miner (Bullfrog, Nye County, Nev.) 1905–1909.
  • Legends of America: Bullfrog Mining District, Nevada.
  • Rhyolite.org: The Bullfrog and Its Associated Mining Districts.
  • Mindat.org: Bullfrog Mining District, Bullfrog Hills, Nye County, Nevada, USA.

Wells Spicer

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Wells Spicer (1831–1885 or 1887) was an American journalist, lawyer and judge whose over saw the trial after the gunfight at the O.K. Corral in Tombstone Arizona.

Historical photo of Wells Spicer, 1875. Cropped from group photo of John D. Lee's defense team for Lee's second murder trial.
Historical photo of Wells Spicer, 1875. Cropped from group photo of John D. Lee’s defense team for Lee’s second murder trial.

Early Life and Education

Wells Spicer was born in 1831 in Chemung, Tioga County, New York, to William and Seba Spicer, Presbyterian farmers. He had two siblings: an older brother, George, and a younger sister, also named Seba. Around 1840, when Wells was nine, the family relocated to Tipton, Cedar County, Iowa. As a young man, Spicer clerked for respected lawyer, banker, and merchant William H. Tuthill, under whose guidance he was admitted to the Iowa bar in 1853. That same year, Spicer, with associates, launched the Cedar County Advertiser, becoming its sole publisher and editor by 1854. He sold the successful newspaper four years later.

Early Career and Family

Spicer’s early career was multifaceted. In 1854, he ran unsuccessfully as a Democrat for county prosecutor but switched to the Republican Party and won election as county judge in 1856. That July, he married Abbie Gilbert, and they welcomed a son, Earnest, in 1857. The couple faced marital difficulties, separating in 1876, though Spicer considered himself married years later. After a brief stint in Onandaeg City, Colorado, Spicer moved to the Utah Territory in 1869 with former publishing colleague Charles Swetland, settling in Corinne City, a non-Mormon enclave. Admitted to the Utah bar, Spicer specialized in mining suits and claims and opened a hotel. Abbie and Earnest joined him around this time.

Utah Ventures and the Mountain Meadows Massacre Trial

In 1871, Wells Spicer and his family moved to Ophir City, Utah, where he continued legal work, prospected, and founded a tunneling company. He contributed to the Salt Lake Daily Tribune and Utah Mining Gazette. By 1872, the family settled in Salt Lake City, where Spicer was appointed U.S. Commissioner by the Supreme Court, handling cases primarily in Bingham. In 1874, he leased the Rollins Mine in the Lincoln Mining District near Minersville, striking a profitable lead and gold vein that revitalized the area.

Through his Beaver connections, Spicer became entangled in the infamous Mountain Meadows Massacre trial. In November 1874, Sheriff William Stokes arrested John D. Lee for his role in the 1857 massacre, where a Mormon militia killed approximately 120 emigrants in southern Utah. Spicer defended Lee in two trials. The first, in 1875, ended in a hung jury—eight Mormons voted for acquittal, four non-Mormons for conviction. Spicer faced backlash: non-Mormons labeled him a “jack Mormon” for defending Lee, while Mormons criticized his defense tactics. The second trial in 1876, with a Mormon-heavy jury, convicted Lee, who was executed by firing squad on March 22, 1877. Spicer’s reputation suffered, with both sides vilifying him in the press, often referring to him derisively as “One Spicer.”

Move to Tombstone and the O.K. Corral Hearing

In 1878, Spicer relocated to Tombstone, Arizona, where he worked as an attorney, mining broker, and U.S. Commissioner for Deeds. He was appointed Justice of the First District Court in June 1880, overseeing customs, internal revenue, and U.S. criminal cases. Related to the Earp brothers, Spicer’s most notable role came after the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral on October 26, 1881. The 30-second shootout pitted Marshal Virgil Earp, his brothers Wyatt and Morgan, and Doc Holliday against outlaws Billy Claiborne, Ike and Billy Clanton, and Tom and Frank McLaury. Billy Clanton and the McLaury brothers were killed.

As Justice of the Peace, Spicer presided over the preliminary hearing to determine if the Earps and Holliday should face murder charges, following complaints filed by Ike Clanton. The month-long “Spicer Hearing,” held in a building near the Tombstone Epitaph office, generated intense debate. Spicer’s rulings, including allowing Kate Holliday’s testimony despite her allegations against Doc Holliday, sparked accusations of bias, especially given his business ties with Wyatt Earp in liquor and tobacco sales. On November 29, 1881, Spicer ruled that the evidence would not support a murder conviction, citing the defendants’ actions as justified in their official duties. He noted the lawlessness of the frontier and the Earps’ role in maintaining order, though he acknowledged the Grand Jury could revisit the case. The Grand Jury upheld his decision, and the Earps and Holliday were released.

The bodies of Tom & Frank McLaury and Bill Clanton after the shoot-out in Tombstone
The bodies of Tom & Frank McLaury and Bill Clanton after the shoot-out in Tombstone

The ruling was polarizing. The Tombstone Epitaph praised Spicer, while the Tombstone Nugget and the Cowboy faction condemned him. In December 1881, Spicer received a threatening letter from “A Miner,” warning him to leave or face violence. Unintimidated, he remained in Tombstone but faced ongoing scrutiny for alleged partisanship.

Later Years and Mysterious Disappearance

The O.K. Corral decision effectively ended Spicer’s legal career in Tombstone. He shifted focus to prospecting, first in Pima County, Arizona, then in Ures, Sonora, Mexico. In the mid-1880s, he invested heavily in a silver mine in the Quijotoa Mountains near Tucson, but the shallow veins led to financial ruin. Destitute and reportedly despondent, Spicer’s final days are shrouded in mystery. In January 1887, while en route to Covered Wells, he visited Bill Haynes and attempted suicide twice. He then wandered into the Arizona desert and vanished. Some believe he died of exposure, while others speculate he faked his death to escape creditors and fled to Mexico, possibly Ures. A report suggests his body was found in Ajo, Arizona, in 1885, but no definitive evidence confirms his fate.

Legacy

Wells Spicer’s life encapsulates the complexities of the American frontier. A lawyer, journalist, prospector, and judge, he navigated the volatile worlds of mining, politics, and justice. His involvement in the Mountain Meadows Massacre trials and the O.K. Corral hearing placed him at the heart of two defining frontier events, earning him both fame and infamy. Criticized for bias yet praised for his legal reasoning, Spicer’s decisions reflected the blurred lines between law and lawlessness in the Wild West. His mysterious disappearance only adds to his enigmatic legacy, leaving historians to debate whether he met a tragic end or slipped away to a new life.